Diagnostic

ABSTRACT

A method of assessing the risk of an individual of suffering from atherosclerosis wherein the method comprises:  
     a) removing anti-lipoprotein immune complexes from a sample from the individual;  
     b) measuring the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with said anti-lipoprotein immune complexes; and  
     c) determining thereby the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The invention relates to a method for determining the risk of an individual suffering from atherosclerosis and in particular suffering from clinical complications of atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] Atherosclerosis is a disease which results in narrowed arteries and decreased blood flow. The arteries become narrowed because of a build up of plaques in their inner walls. Plaques consist of a mixture of substances including cholesterol, fat, fibrous tissue, clumps of platelets and sometimes calcium.

[0003] Atherosclerosis begins early in life, but generally causes no symptoms until middle or old age. This is because it takes many years for plaques to develop and because normal arteries are much larger than they need to be. Only after an artery becomes very narrowed will blood flow be diminished enough to cause symptoms. When atherosclerosis affects arteries supplying blood to the heart, patients experience angina and claudication.

[0004] The formation of lipoprotein-antibody auto immune complexes is associated with lesion development in arteries. These complexes have also been detected in the blood of rabbits with experimental hypercholesterolemia and also in the blood and aorta wall of ischaemic heart disease patients.

[0005] Hyperlipidaemia is a risk factor of atherosclerosis. In general, individuals with an increased level of cholesterol are prone to develop or have already developed atherosclerosis. However, although some individuals may not have an increased level of cholesterol, it does not necessarily mean that they do not suffer from atherosclerosis. Hyperlipidaemia has little diagnositic value in cardiovascular pathology since only 10-20% of the total patients with clinical complications of atherosclerosis demonstrate an elevated level of cholesterol in their plasma

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] We now provide a simple method for determining the likelihood of an individual suffering from atherosclerosis and in particular from suffering from the clinical complications of atherosclerosis.

[0007] In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a method of assessing the risk of an individual of suffering from atherosclerosis, or a clinical complication of atherosclerosis, wherein the method comprises

[0008] a) removing immune complexes from a sample from the individual;

[0009] b) measuring the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein in the treated sample from step (a);

[0010] c) determining thereby the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual.

[0011] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the immune complexes, that is anti-lipoprotein immune complexes are IgG-based immune complexes. Such complexes may be removed by contacting the sample with an immunoglobulin binding protein like protein A, for example, bound to a solid support. In a particularly preferred aspect of the present invention, protein A is bound to beads. Step (a) comprises incubating the sample with protein A bound to beads and subsequently centrifuging or filtering the sample so treated and collecting the supernatant for the measurement step (b).

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0012]FIG. 1. Titration of protein A with 1 ml of human plasma; results of three experiments with the same sample of donor's plasma are presented; (a) changes of plasma cholesterol; (b) changes of plasma protein, clear points, and level of cholesterol attached to protein A, opaque points; the diluting effect of the added suspension of protein A was taken into account when the calculations of the concentrations were made for this graph.

[0013]FIG. 2. Comparison of ALICs in μg per mg protein in control and patient group serum samples.

[0014]FIG. 3. Comparison of cholesterol in mg/ml in control and patient group serum samples.

[0015]FIG. 4. Correlation between ALICs and cholesterol levels in human sera.

[0016]FIG. 5. Correlation between ALICs level and age.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0017] The present invention makes use of anti-lipoprotein immune complexes comprising antibodies and lipoprotein and monitors the levels of these immune complexes as a marker for atherosclerosis. The method may be used to assist in monitoring atherosclerosis that has already been diagnosed, for example to assess the risk of such an individual from suffering from clinical complications of atherosclerosis. Alternatively, the method may be used as part of the assessment of an individual who has not previously been diagnosed as suffering from atherosclerosis, for example in pre-clinical screening of patients who are not showing clinical complications. The assay may be particularly useful in monitoring patients who have undergone vascular surgery, for example, a heart by pass operation. Restenosis of the graft is accelerated by atherosclerotic occlusion in such patients.

[0018] The assay of the present invention may also be used to monitor the effect of treatments or prophylaxis of patients suffering from atherosclerosis or at risk of atherosclerosis by providing a marker for such atherosclerosis and the onset of clinical complications of atherosclerosis.

[0019] In particular, the invention provides an indication of cholesterol or lipoprotein associated with immunoglobulin based anti-lipoprotein immune complexes as a marker for atherosclerosis.

[0020] In accordance with the method of the present invention, a sample from an individual is treated to remove lipoprotein-antibody complexes from the sample. The levels of cholesterol or lipoprotein associated with these complexes is determined to allow an assessment of the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual. In a preferred aspect of the present invention, the sample taken from the patient is a blood sample. Preferably, the method is carried out on a plasma or serum sample from the patient. Most preferably, the sample is a plasma sample.

[0021] Antilipoprotein-immune complexes may be removed from the sample by any suitable method. In a preferred aspect, these complexes are removed from the sample by affinity chromatography using an antibody-binding reagent. Such a reagent will remove all antibodies present in the sample including free antibody and antibody associated with lipoprotein in the anti-lipoprotein immune complexes. Measurement of the levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with the bound antibody fraction provide an indication of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with anti-lipoprotein immune complexes and hence a marker for atherosclerosis. In a preferred aspect of the present invention, these immune complexes are removed using an antibody sorbent.

[0022] Any suitable antibody sorbent may be used. Examples include protein A, protein L, protein G and hybrid proteins based on these proteins such as protein LA. In a preferred aspect, the antibody sorbent for use in connection with the invention binds to immunoglobulin G. In a particularly preferred embodiment, an immunoglobulin G binding domain of protein A is used as the antibody sorbent. Protein A has been well characterised and binds to the Fc portion of IgG. In accordance with the present invention, protein A may comprise whole protein A isolated from Staphylococcus. Alternatively, protein A may comprise recombinant protein A. Fragments of protein A may also be provided, such fragments incorporating at least an IgG binding domain of protein A. Such fragments may comprise homologues or variants of protein A or may form hybrid proteins with other proteins, either as carriers or with other immunoglobulin binding proteins.

[0023] The antibody sorbent can be attached to a solid phase. The sample taken from a patient can-be contacted with this antibody sorbent and the anti-lipoprotein complexes thus absorbed onto the antibody sorbent bound to solid phase and removed from the sample.

[0024] In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the antibody sorbent is provided bound to beads, and in particular to agarose beads.

[0025] The antibody sorbent may be bound to the solid support, such as beads using any suitable method. The protein bound to the solid support may be provided as fusion proteins with other proteins either to assist in attachment to the solid support or to provide other functional characteristics which might be desired. The antibody sorbent may be derivatised to assist in its attachment to the solid support such as beads. Linkers may be provided and standard coupling or conjugating techniques used.

[0026] Once a sample has been contacted with antibody sorbent bound to a solid support, the levels of lipoproteins/cholesterol associated with the immune complexes may be measured. This may be carried out by any suitable method. The anti-lipoprotein immune complexes bound to the solid support may be separated from the remainder of the sample. This may be carried out in a number of different ways. For example, the antibody sorbent can be supplied as a column through which the sample is passed. Thus, unbound portion of the sample may be collected at the bottom of the column leaving the anti-lipoprotein immune complexes bound to the column via the antibody sorbent. In an alternative and preferred aspect of the invention, the sample is incubated with beads to which the antibody sorbent is bound. These beads may be separated out from the remainder of the sample by centrifugation, filtration or other means such as application of a magnetic field when magnetic beads are used. For example, the sample could be passed through a non-sticky filter which does not retain free lipoproteins/cholesterol in the sample but will retain the antibody-sorbent bound to beads. Alternatively, a magnetic field could be applied to draw magnetic beads with bound anti-lipoprotein immune complexes from the rest of the sample.

[0027] In a preferred aspect of the invention, the separation is carried out by centrifugation of the sample so that the supernatant comprising the unbound fraction of the sample can be collected. Alternatively, the beaded antibody-sorbent fraction could be collected from such centrifuged sample.

[0028] Preferably, the antibody sorbent is present in sufficient quantity to absorb all antibody from the sample, and preferably an excess of antibody sorbent is contacted with a sample containing antibody. Suitable amounts of antibody sorbent can readily be determined, for example by increasing the amount of antibody sorbent contacted with a sample until no further antibody is removed from the sample.

[0029] The cholesterol content or lipoprotein content may be measured by any suitable means. In particular, the total content of cholesterol, apo A-1, B, E or any other parameter of lipoprotein could be determined. For example, triglycerides can be measured by enzymatic calorimetric assays. Apoprotein components can be measured by ELISA, immunoturbidimetric or radioimmunoassays. Suitable kits for measurement of apolipoprotien and triglycerides are readily available and any such assay might be used. An example of a suitable cholesterol assay is available from Sigma diagnostics. Cholesterol esters are first hydrolyzed by cholesterol esterase to cholesterol. The cholesterol produced by hydrolysis is oxodized by cholesterol oxidase to cholest-en-3-one and hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide can then be coupled with a chromogen in the presence of peroxidase. For example, a quinoneimine dye may be used. The intensity of the colour produced will be directly proportional to the cholesterol concentration in the sample.

[0030] In a preferred aspect of the present invention, the cholesterol or lipoprotein content of the sample is measured prior to incubation with the antibody-sorbent. After contact with the antibody-sorbent, the cholesterol or lipoprotein content of the remaining sample so treated is then measured again. A comparison between the cholesterol/lipoprotein levels before and after the treatment provides an indication of the levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with immune complexes and thus provides a marker of athlerosclerotic disease in the individual. Preferably, repeat measurements of cholesterol/lipoprotein levels are carried out using the same measurement technique used to assess those levels prior to treatment.

[0031] The levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein measured in accordance with the method may be used in a number of different ways. For example, the level measured in the sample after removal of the anti-lipoprotein immune complexes, or associated with such immune complexes may be compared directly with the levels seen in a healthy individual or an individual known to be suffering from atherosclerosis or the clinical complications of atherosclerosis in order to assess the risk of the individual from suffering from atherosclerosis.

[0032] The levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein measured before and after incubation with protein A provide an indication of the levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with anti-lipoprotein antibody immune complexes. The reduction in cholesterol/lipoprotein levels is associated with the amount of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with anti-lipoprotein immune complexes. The level of this reduction can be compared to samples taken previously from patients known to be suffering from atherosclerosis or showing clinical complications of atherosclerosis. Alternatively, comparison may be made with healthy individuals who do not display atherosclerosis or any of the clinical complications of atherosclerosis. Such comparison provides an indication of the risk of an individual suffering from atherosclerosis and/or from suffering from a clinical complication of atherosclerosis.

[0033] Alternatively, a number of samples may be taken from the same individual over a period of time, for example, during the course of a treatment or prophylaxis for atherosclerosis or at monthly or yearly intervals to monitor the progress of that individual and thus provide an indication of the risk or atherosclerosis and clinical complications of atherosclerosis.

[0034] In other aspects of the present invention, the method may involve taking repeated samples from the same individual over a period of time and monitoring for changes in the levels of cholesterol or lipoprotein associated with immune complexes to determine alterations in the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with immune complexes and in particular with IgG to monitor any changes in the risk of that individual from suffering from atherosclerosis or die clinical complications of atherosclerosis.

[0035] In another aspect, the invention relates to a kit for use in accordance with the method of the invention.

[0036] In particular, a kit in accordance with the present invention comprises means for measuring cholesterol or lipoprotein in a sample and, antibody sorbent, such as protein A bound to a solid support. In a preferred aspect of the invention, the kit comprises antibody sorbent, such as an immunoglobulin binding domain of protein A bound to beads.

EXAMPLES

[0037] Materials and Methods

[0038] Most of the chemicals were from “Sigma”. rProtein L was from “ACTIgen”. All solutions were prepared in 0.05M phosphate buffer with 0.1 mM diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), pH 7.4 unless otherwise stated. All measurements were performed in triplicate at least.

[0039] Human specimens. There were two groups of specimens of aorta from patients with clinical complications of atherosclerosis. The first was obtained from necropsy on 21 patients (age range 48-85 years, 16 male, 5 female) at Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge, UK. In some cases more than one lesion samples was taken from the same patient. The pieces of aorta were digested by collagenase.

[0040] The second group of specimens together with samples of plasma, serum and in some cases biopsy of quadriceps femoris muscle were recovered from 11 patients (age range 53-64 years, 8 male, 3 female) during bypass surgery of the patients with an abdominal aorta stenosis at the Centre of Cardio-Vascular Surgery of the Clinical Hospital No. 1 in Rostov-na-Donu, Russia. After recovery these samples were immediately put in 30% w/v solution of NaCl and stored at 0-4° C. for 1-2 weeks prior to examination. In the control experiments it was shown that during this period the activities of enzymes such as trypsin, catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, together with a level of immunoglobulin (IgG) fragmentation and a degree of lipid peroxidation (concentration of malonaldehydes) did not significantly change (data not presented).

[0041] The pieces of aorta (approximately 200-400 mg wet weight) were immersed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and scraped with a blunt glass rod about 8-10 times. Subsequently no further protein could be detected in these extracts. The remaining samples were cut into about ten to twenty pieces each, placed in 5.0 ml of PBS and homogenised by a mechanical homogeniser (Ultra-Turrax) at full-power with a 15 mm probe three times for 3 seconds each with 20 second cooling intervals. In order to determine the optimum condition for the extraction of immunoglobulins (Igs) this procedure was performed with different concentrations of two non-ionic detergents, Triton X-100 and Igepal CA-630. After homogenisation the insoluble components were separated by centrifugation at 5000 g for 10 minutes and supernatants were used for analysis.

[0042] Immunoglobulin/immune complex extraction. The first step was the treatment of the analysed samples with protein A attached to cross-linked 4% beaded agarose at 37° C. for 30 minutes. After that immunoglobulins and/or immune complexes which had bound via protein A to the beads were spun down at 5000 g for 10 minutes. Supernatants were removed for further tests. Sediments were re-suspended in PBS and the samples were centrifuged again under the same regime. This washing procedure was repeated three times.

[0043] In the second step the supernatants were treated with rProtein L attached to cross-linked 4% agarose under the same conditions as described for protein A. The different ratios between proteins A/L and analysed types of material were tested to find the optimal which gives the maximum yield of immunoglobulins (see results).

[0044] In the control experiments, instead of protein A reagent, under the same conditions two 10% w/v suspensions of Staphylococcus aureus were used; one bearing protein A, Cowan strain, and the other not bearing protein A, Wood 46 strain.

[0045] Immunoglobulin content and quantification. Since neither protein A nor rProtein L reagents affect alkaline phosphatase, APase, reaction themselves (data not shown), it was possible to use APase antibody conjugates for immuno-enzyme assays to measure the concentration of immunoglobulins attached to the protein A/L agarose beads. To determine IgG, IgA and IgM anti-human affinity isolated goat antibody APase-conjugates were applied. To determine subclasses of IgG appropriate mouse monoclonal antibodies (IgG class) were firstly used with the subsequent application in the second stage of anti-mouse goat antibody APase-conjugates. The monoclonal anti-human IgG1 was derived from clone SG-16 mouse ascites fluid, anti-human IgG2 from clone HP-6014, anti-human IgG3 from clone HP-6047, anti-human IgG4 from SK-44. The titer of the working solutions for mouse antibodies against IgG1 was 1:2,000, against IgG2 and IgG4 was 1:1,000 and against IgG3 was 1:500. All these antibodies belonged to the mouse IgG1 isotype. The goat conjugates used were pre-absorbed with bovine and human proteins and used in the titer of 1:10,000.

[0046] To exclude the binding of these antibodies directly with protein A/L and goat APase conjugates with protein A all analysed samples were preliminarily incubated with bovine IgG in the ratio 2.5 mg of the immunoglobulin per 0.1 ml of the sorbent. The APase conjugates had no cross-reactivity with bovine IgG. Although the binding of these conjugates to rProtein L was much lower than to protein A, the level of this binding, either in the direct or non-direct method, was always measured in control experiments and deducted when the level of immunoglobulins was calculated in the analysed samples.

[0047] In order to determine the quantity of immunoglobulins attached to the sorbent the titration of commercial human IgG, IgA and IgM with protein A and rProtein L was performed under the same conditions as for the tested specimens.

[0048] Each stage of incubation of the protein A/L extracts with the appropriate antibodies lasted 30 minutes at 37° C., accompanied by centrifugation of the samples at 5,000 g for 10 minutes and their re-suspension in PBS three times. To determine the amount of APase conjugate attached to the sorbent, p-Nitrophenyl Phosphate (pNPP), was used as a substrate for alkaline phosphatase. This substrate was added directly to the beaded conjugate, mixed well and incubated at ambient temperature for 60 minutes. After that all samples were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 5,000 g, supernatants were collected and analysed at λ400 nm. In some cases the analysed samples were further diluted in order to make the level of their absorption between 0.03 and 1.0 where it has a lineal character.

[0049] ‘Matched pair’ clinical trial. Samples of serum for this trial were collected from 23 patients admitted for bypass cardiovascular surgery with a history of myocardial infarction without any signs of other serious diseases such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, or cancer. This group comprised 20 male and 3 female patients aged between 40 and 60 years. The control group had the same number of clinically healthy men and women with the same profile in age, habits (smoking, drinking) and body constitution.

[0050] For the routine analysis in the clinical trial 2 volumes of a sample of serum were mixed with 3 volumes of the suspension of protein A reagent, which provided an excess of this sorbent above any potential level of IgG in the sample. This mixture was then incubated for 30 minutes at 37° C. subsequently centrifuged at 5000 g for 10 minutes. After that one volume of the supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of protein L reagent and treated in the same fashion as described in the previous stage.

[0051] An initial sample of serum and the supernatants after its protein A treatment were analysed for protein and total cholesterol content. The difference in the protein content was considered as the amount of IgG attached to protein A. The difference in the cholesterol content reflected the amount of serum lipoproteins associated with these immunoglobulins and was considered as a quantitative measure for anti-lipoprotein immune complexes of IgG (ALICs-IgG).

[0052] Immunoglobulin/immune complexes elution from protein A/L reagents. Immunoglobulins (free or in a form of immune complexes) attached to either protein A or rProtein L were delipidated by 5% of Igepal CA-630. After 5 times washing in PBS and centrifuging at 5,000 g for 10 minutes these samples were re-suspended again and incubated in 0.01M acetate buffer pH 2.5 for 30 minutes. Apparently this procedure affects neither covalently bound protein A nor rProtein L to agarose. After a further centrifugation under the same regime, supernatants containing immunoglobulins and, perhaps, their antigens were collected and pH was restored to 7.4.

[0053] Protein and cholesterol concentrations. Protein concentration of the extracts was determined by Peterson's modification of the micro-Lowry method, which utilizes sodium dodecylsulfate to facilitate the dissolution of relatively insoluble lipoproteins. Bovine serum albumin was used for the calibration curve.

[0054] Cholesterol concentration was determined by the enzymatic assay which couples cholesterol esterase with 4-aminoantipyrine/p-hydroxybenzene-sulfonate/peroxidase reaction (Sigma kit). To male a calibrating curve a solution of Cholesterol Calibrator was used, which had been certified according to the recommendations of the Centre for Disease Control and the National Cholesterol Education Program, Laboratory Standardization Panel. Since both protein A and rProtein L reagents are indifferent to this assay (data not presented) it was possible, therefore, to measure the level of cholesterol directly associated with these beads. Immune complexes attached to these reagents and containing lipoproteins as their antigen were mixed well and incubated with the reaction mixture for about 40 minutes at ambient temperature. After that the samples were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 5,000 g, supernatants were collected and analysed at λ520 nm.

[0055] Results

EXAMPLE 1 Extraction of Anti-Lipoprotein Immune Complexes (ALICs) from Plasma/Serum.

[0056] The results of the titration of protein A reagent with human plasma are presented in FIG. 1. The reduction of cholesterol concentration in the plasma reached its plateau at the same time as the level of cholesterol reached its saturation on the sorbent. This coincided with the exhaustion of the plasma in protein A susceptible immunoglobulins. The maximum of ALICs extraction was achieved when the ratio of the sorbent to plasma was 1.5:1.0.

[0057] The process of coagulation consumes not only protein components of plasma but apparently some lipoproteins as well. This is reflected by the fact that the level of cholesterol in sera was always lower (sometimes more than 30%) than its level in the samples of plasma from which they were derived, see Table 1 below. This is supported by another experiment (details of which are not presented in this paper) where the amount of cholesterol attached to the fibrin was between 3.3 and 12.1 μg per mg of the mass of this protein. TABLE 1 Comparison of the protein and cholesterol extraction by protein A from the plasma and sera of individual patients; the ratio of the volume of the plasma/serum to the volume of protein A was 1:1.5; mean data of three parallel measurements are presented. Protein concentration, Cholesterol concentration, mg/ml μg/ml initial after the addition initial after the addition Samples level of protein A level of protein A Patient No. 1 Plasma 88.8 45.7 1592 660 Serum 73.2 37.8 1074 482 Patient No. 2 Plasma 90.4 42.5 1474 678 Serum 76.8 38.4 1284 458 Patient No. 3 Plasma 80.6 46.3 1294 602 Serum 75.4 46.2 1208 562

[0058] Apparently for patients No.2 and No.3 coagulation did not consume lipoprotein fraction extractable by protein A, since the level of cholesterol depletion was almost the same in the plasma samples as in the sera. However in the plasma of patient No.3 37% of ALICs were trapped/involved in the process of its coagulation. Therefore, in order to guarantee the full extraction of this type of immune complexes plasma rather than serum is preferably used.

[0059] The level of the protein extractable by protein A was about 50% of the total protein of the analysed samples of plasma/serum. The level of lipoproteins, in terms of cholesterol concentration, which were able to interact with this sorbent was between 54-64%. Since this fraction of lipoproteins can interact with protein A only via immunoglobulins associated with them, see Table 2 below, this percentage reflects the level of ALICs in these samples. TABLE 2 Demonstration of the immunoglobulin-mediated nature of lipoprotein binding to protein A Cholesterol attached to the sorbent, in E_(λ520 nm) × 10³, after addition of: Samples 0.5 ml plasma 0.5 ml homogenate* 0.75 ml 4% agarose  4 ± 1.5  12 ± 2.3 0.75 ml cross-linked 4% beaded  0 ± 2.2  5 ± 3.5 agarose 0.75 ml protein A conjugated with 107 ± 5.4  266 ± 14.1 4% beaded agarose 0.75 ml protein A conjugated with  3 ± 0.9  15 ± 2.7 4% beaded agarose + 20 mg IgG** 0.75 ml protein A conjugated with 109 ± 4.1 274 ± 11.6 4% beaded agarose + 200 mg HSA** 0.75 ml 10% suspension of bearing 112 ± 9.3*** 305 ± 22.1*** protein A S. aureus (Cowan strain) 0.75 ml 10% suspension of non-  0 ± 5.5***  7 ± 4.8*** bearing protein A S. aureus (Wood 46 strain)

EXAMPLE 2 Specificity of the Binding of ALICs with Protein A Reagent

[0060] The specificity of the binding of lipoproteins with the protein A reagent and the almost mandatory mediator role in this of immunoglobulins was demonstrated in three experiments. In the first experiment it was shown that the level of cholesterol attached to the 4% agarose itself was 3.7% for the plasma and 4.5% for the aorta homogenate in comparison with the level of the binding towards the full reagent with protein A. When the cross-linked 4% beaded agarose was tested the cholesterol attachment was either non-detectable for plasma or 1.9% for homogenate samples (Table 2).

[0061] The necessity of protein A for binding of lipoproteins was supported by another experiment using the Wood 46 strain of Staphylococcus Aureus, which is defective in the expression of protein A. This strain failed to attract any cholesterol in a striking contrast with the Cowan strain bearing protein A.

[0062] In the final experiment the incubation of protein A reagent with human IgG prior to the addition to either samples of plasma or aorta homogenates almost totally cancelled the lipoprotein attachment to this reagent. Human serum albumin in a 10 fold higher dose than IgG did not have any significant effect. Since IgGs are the principle link in the binding of a certain fraction of the lipoproteins of the plasma and homogenates, it is possible to state that the lipoproteins extracted by protein A reagent are antigen components of ALICs.

EXAMPLE 3 Extraction of ALICs from Tissue Homogenates

[0063] The yield of ALICs from aorta homogenates depended on the way they were prepared (Tables 3,4). In the solution of homogenates prepared without any detergent there were no proteins which either belong to immunoglobulins or be associated with them. A similar degree of saturation by immunoglobulin associated material (IAM) solutions was achieved when 1% of non-ionic detergent Triton X-100 was used. This concentration of the detergent not only provided extract containing 95% of LAM but also increased the absolute amount of it by 188% (Table 3). TABLE 3 Effect of a procedure on the yield of immunoglobulins/immune complexes extracted from homogenates of human aortic atheromas Immunoglobulins/ immune complexes Total protein content or IAM** concentration, % of the total Samples* μg/ml μg/ml protein Homogenates prepared in PBS  250 ± 14.7 249 99.5 (n = 3) Homogenates prepared with  493 ± 11.8 469 95.2 1% of Triton X-100 (n = 3) Homogenates prepared with 1815 ± 172  928 51.1 1% of Igepal CA-630 (n = 6) Homogenates prepared with 2395 ± 255  837 34.9 90 Units of collagenase (n = 34)

[0064] TABLE 4 Subsequent use of protein A and protein L for the extraction of antibodies and cholesterol-containing lipid antigen(s) from homogenates of human advanced atheromatous plaques (n = 3); 1 ml of protein A was added to 0.5 ml of homogenate. Protein Cholesterol concentration, concentration, Samples μg/ml μg/ml Homogenisation in PBS Without detergent: Before the addition of protein A  250 ± 14.7 60.8 ± 0.71 after the addition of protein A 84.4 ± 4.79 20.7 ± 0.76 after the subsequent addition 1.25 ± 0.70 4.51 ± 0.61 of protein L Homogenisation with 1% of Triton X-100: before the addition of protein A  493 ± 11.8  119 ± 2.09 after the addition of protein A  155 ± 11.4 44.9 ± 1.00 after the subsequent addition 23.7 ± 4.90 11.9 ± 0.61 of protein L

[0065] The homogenisation of aorta lesions with 1% of another non-ionic detergent, Igepal CA-630, resulted in extracts where only half of the total protein belonged to IAM. However its absolute amount was almost twice as high as for the Triton X-100. A further increase in the concentration of Triton X-100 or Igepal CA-630 led on the one hand to a higher level of the protein to be recovered, but on the other it started to sharply dilute the lipoprotein component of the extracted immune complexes (data not shown).

[0066] Collagenase digestion of the aorta provided the highest amount of protein extraction, but despite this the level of IAM in it was lower than in the experiments with Igepal CA-630.

[0067] 62-66% of ALICs of PBS and 1% Triton X-100 homogenates contained immunoglobulins able to interact with protein A. Another 27%-28% of Igs were extractable by protein L reagent. The remaining 7-10% of lipoproteins could either be free from immunoglobulins, or associated with Igs which neither protein A nor protein L could precipitate. These calculations are based on the assumption that all the molecules of lipoproteins in the analysed samples are the same size and contain the same amount of cholesterol. Although this assumption does not entirely reflect reality, it nevertheless provides an indication regarding the distribution of ALICs in the analysed samples.

[0068] In a separate experiment the use of higher doses of Triton X-100 or Igepal CA-630 for the treatment of the protein A/L plasma and tissue extracts revealed that after this procedure there were no detectable amounts of cholesterol attached to Igs, and, therefore, the antibodies extracted were either against other components of lipoproteins or against conformational epitopes of these molecules.

EXAMPLE 4 Distribution of ALICs in Atherosclerosis

[0069] The analysis of the distribution of ALICs ‘inside’ one patient with severe clinical complications of atherosclerosis is presented in Table 5. The first group of data concerns the level of these complexes which were able to interact with protein A, in terms of cholesterol per protein of IAM. It was demonstrated that their concentration on the surfaces of the atherosclerotic lesions (PBS exaction) was about 3 fold higher than in the plasma. The level of ALICs on these surfaces, in homogenates of the normal part of the arterial wall and quadriceps femoris muscle was about the same. TABLE 5 Distribution of anti-lipoprotein immune complexes inside one patient with cardiovascular clinical complication of atherosclerosis Anti-lipoprotein immune complexes in terms of μg cholesterol/mg IAM extracted* by: Samples subsequent use of Taken from patient No. 2 200 μl of protein A 200 μl of protein L  150 μl of plasma  119/3.375 = 35.3  11/0.217 = 50.7 PBS extracts of advanced  85/0.842 = 101  49/0.252 = 194 plaques**  1.0 ml 1% Igepal CA-630 homogenates of: Quadriceps femoris muscle  70/0.870 = 80.5  78/0.187 = 417 Part of normal arterial wall  104/1.087 = 99.7 103/0.261 = 395 of abdominal aorta Advanced/soft plaque 1480/1.067 = 1387 978/0.199 = 4915 of abdominal aorta Advanced/partially calcified 1227/1.927 = 638 369/0.304 = 1214 Plaque of abdominal aorta

[0070] There were different types of atherosclerotic lesions recovered from this patient. One was well advanced but ‘soft’, another also very developed, but significantly calcified, i.e. ‘harder’. The level of ALICs in the homogenate of the former was 131.9 and in homogenate of the latter 6.4 times higher than in the undamaged tissue of the same aorta.

[0071] Since the protein L reagent was subsequently used after the treatment of the samples with protein A, much less of the IAM was recovered. However, it seems that the density of ALICs, which avoided the binding by protein A but, nevertheless, were eventually precipitated by protein L reagent, was noticeably higher than the density of the complexes which were extracted by protein A in the first stage of the samples treatment. This difference in density was especially prominent in the tissue homogenates.

[0072] Despite these peculiarities the pattern of the distribution of ALICs, which were able to interact with protein L, was about the same as for the ALICs extracted by protein A. The surface of the atherosclerotic lesions contained about 4 fold more of these complexes than their level in plasma. The concentration of this type of ALICs was 3.1 and 12.4 times higher in the ‘hard’ and in the ‘soft’ plaques accordingly than in the normal part of the same aorta.

EXAMPLE 5 ‘Matched Paired’ Clinical Study

[0073] The measurement of anti-lipoprotein immune complexes IgG-based (ALICs-IgG) by our original procedure was much more revealing than any published data so far. The total level of these complexes in the sera of the patients was 89.6±16.21 [μg cholesterol/mg IgG] against 25.3±2.17 [μg cholesterol/mg IgG] in the control group (p<0.001). The upper confident level of this parameter in the control is 29.6 [μg cholesterol/mg IgG]. The level of ALICs-IgG exceeding this threshold was detected in 20 cases out of 23 or in 87% for the patients, and only in 4 cases or in 17% for the control (see table 6 below).

[0074] A comparison of these IgG data with the measurements of cholesterol (classic risk factor for atherosclerosis) in the same sera showed that 5 people in the patients group and 6 people in the control one had slightly more than 2.0 mg/ml. The mean levels of this parameter in both groups were not statistically different (see table below).

[0075] Based on this limited study and on these particular groups of people, it is possible to conclude that the accumulation of ALICs-IgG happens not only in an arterial wall in atherosclerosis but also in the blood stream. It seems that this phenomenon is a highly frequent feature in patients with clinical complications of atherosclerosis (at least much more common than hypocholesterolemia). This would suggest that the increased level of plasma ALICs-IgG can serve as an effective marker for screening, diagnosis and monitoring of atherosclerosis. TABLE 6 Results from “Matched pairs” clinical study ALICs-IgG, ALICs-IgG, in μg Total in μg Total cholesterol cholesterol cholesterol cholesterol Groups per mg IgG in μg/ml Groups per mg IgG in μg/ml Patients: Control:  1) Ki 27.8 1,063  1) 1 24.8 2,074  2) Pi 29.7 1,402  2) 2 35.9 2,182  3) Ci 42.8 1,723  3) 3 21.9 1,986  4) Mi 48.1 2,293  4) 4 24.4 2,002  5) Chs 36.8 1,686  5) 5 15.3 1,806  6) Y 22.1 1,782  6) 6 33.1 2,038  7) Ba 53.6 1,438  7) 7 28.9 2,110  8) Yk 158.2 2,197  8) 8 22.1 1,902  9) O 31.7 1,543  9) 9 19.4 1,756 10) M 20.3 1,519 10) 10 22.5 1,638 11) Sh 132.3 2,002 11) 11 28.9 1,591 12) Pa 178.6 1,199 12) 12 24.3 1,704 13) D 119.0 1,015 13) 13 28.2 1,337 14) Ch 355.1 2,129 14) 14 28.5 1,932 15) K 57.7 1,223 15) 1a 16.4 1,359 16) C 29.6 1,572 16) 2a 24.9 1,607 17) Z 36.9 1,754 17) 3a 52.5 1,714 18) G 43.4 1,551 18) 4a 27.0 1,510 19) B 43.2 1,693 19) 5a 23.3 1,516 20) A1 186.9 1,750 20) 6a 20.1 1,475 21) A2 55.5 1,601 21) 7a 19.8 1,480 22) 40i 37.4 1,286 22) 8a 30.0 1,592 23) 60a 45.4 2,122 23) 9a 8.8 2,030

EXAMPLE 6 ‘Non Match Paired’ Norwegian Clinical Study

[0076] The ages, serum cholesterol, protein and ALICs content of the patient and control groups, plus changes in serum cholesterol and protein concentrations after treatment with protein A, are presented in table 7. The level of ALICs-IgG in the sera of patients was 67.6±1.94 [μg cholesterol/mg protein] compared to 12.9±1.94 in the control group (FIG. 2). This comparison shows that the level of ALICs was more than 5 fold higher in the patient sera than in the healthy control (p<0.001).

[0077] At the same time, the level of cholesterol in both groups was about the same: 2.75±0.183 [mg/ml] for the control group and 2.93±0.171 for the patient group (FIG. 3). A cholesterol level of more than 2.6 mg/ml was found in 52% (18 out of 34) of the patient sera and in 53% (8 out of 15) of the control samples. A correlation analysis showed that the ALICs content is an independent parameter (r=0.36486) to cholesterol concentrations in human sera (FIG. 4), and like the latter, is not dependent on the age of the patient (FIG. 5).

[0078] An elevated level of ALICs (≧28 μg cholesterol per mg protein) was found in 76.5% of analysed patient sera and only in 13% of the control samples. These results are similar to those obtained in trials undertaken in the UK and Russia (see table 8, below). A distribution analysis of the control groups from all the clinical studies showed that there were two relatively condensed clusters. One was between 2 and 12 μg cholesterol per mg protein, the other was between 14 and 24 μg cholesterol per mg protein. Presumably their existence corresponds to two different states of the relationships between lipoprotein metabolism and the immune system.

[0079] These results demonstrate a significant diagnostic value of ALICs as a specific marker of atherosclerosis. They also confirm that a measurement of cholesterol content provides no useful diagnostic information, which corresponds to the results of many other trials and the practical experience of cardiovascular clinics. 12 samples out of 66 in the control groups had a value outside the upper cluster (≧28 μg cholesterol per mg protein). It is possible that this 18% of apparently healthy individuals already have active atherosclerosis. In this case the measurement of ALICs may help to detect the beginning of the disease before the development of its clinical manifestation. TABLE 7 Results from “Non matched pairs” clinical study. Δ - an increment/decrease in cholesterol or protein concentrations caused by the treatment of the sera with protein A agarose. Changes in the Changes in the serum cholesterol serum protein ALICs, concentration concentration in μg caused by treatment caused by treatment choles- with protein with protein terol Serum A, in mg/ml A, in mg/ml per mg from: Age before After Δ before after Δ protein Control 1. 40 1.81 1.12 0.693 99.7 37.3 62.4 11.1 2. 38 1.62 1.22 0.393 102.3 34.0 68.3 5.75 3. 43 2.47 1.44 1.026 96.75 34.3 92.4 11.1 4. 48 2.73 1.51 1.218 202.8 48.6 154.2 7.9 5. 46 2.09 1.50 0.592 111.5 41.4 70.1 8.45 6. 50 2.84 1.41 1.432 119.3 56.5 62.8 22.8 7. 54 2.80 2.40 0.403 126.7 50.6 76.1 5.3 8. 41 3.45 1.86 1.588 87.5 42.0 45.5 34.9 9. 50 2.91 1.79 1.120 70.1 33.0 37.1 30.2 10. 47 3.67 2.64 1.027 137.2 17.8 119.4 8.6 11. 42 1.96 1.81 0.151 116.4 64.5 51.9 2.9 12. 65 3.92 2.99 0.927 111.4 45.2 66.2 14.0 13. 50 2.44 1.69 0.749 100.2 46.3 53.9 13.9 14. 41 3.43 2.41 1.019 140.0 39.6 100.4 10.1 15. 39 3.06 2.48 0.577 129.1 33.6 95.5 6.0 Patients 1. 69 3.67 2.55 1.120 79.1 33.0 35.1 31.9 2. 56 3.22 1.67 1.549 78.8 37.7 41.1 37.7 3. 57 3.28 1.66 1.616 38.8 33.05 5.75 281 4. 53 3.49 2.44 1.051 67.0 37.9 29.1 36.1 5. 39 2.87 1.94 0.930 86.8 60.15 26.65 34.9 6. 51 4.76 2.99 1.770 94.8 62.15 32.65 54.2 7. 69 3.61 2.79 0.818 67.7 52.9 14.8 55.3 8. 43 5.80 1.17 4.629 89.1 82.4 11.9 389 9. 87 5.24 3.61 1.630 89.1 40.3 48.8 33.4 10. 65 3.90 2.61 1.288 85.9 50.7 35.2 36.6 11. 78 2.93 1.64 1.290 67.0 60.2 6.8 190 12. 49 3.34 2.81 0.525 72.2 57.4 14.8 35.45 13. 36 3.78 3.08 0.696 95.8 50.45 45.35 15.35 14. 46 3.22 2.08 1.140 92.3 47.95 44.35 25.7 15. 57 3.87 2.51 0.361 125.8 55.0 70.8 5.1 16. 77 2.53 2.40 0.131 65.2 40.0 25.2 5.2 17. 71 4.96 2.71 2.254 128.4 45.3 83.1 27.1 18. 71 2.83 1.99 0.839 110.9 35.5 75.4 11.1 19. 57 3.11 1.65 1.461 102.4 54.0 48.4 30.2 20. 89 2.61 2.19 0.419 91.3 41.9 49.5 7.30 21. 77 2.61 1.89 0.712 80.2 57.1 23.1 30.8 22. 75 5.29 3.22 2.062 133.2 40.3 92.9 22.3 23. 55 3.29 2.13 1.125 118.2 106.3 11.9 94.5 24. 64 3.68 2.03 1.654 83.0 45.5 37.5 44.1 25. 78 3.16 2.08 1.078 61.8 55.8 6.0 180 26. 64 3.91 2.58 1.327 64.8 46.9 17.9 74.1 27. 80 3.43 1.85 1.583 78.4 59.6 18.8 84.2 28. 73 2.96 1.86 1.097 58.4 47.3 11.1 98.8 29. 61 3.48 1.71 1.768 62.7 48.1 14.6 86.8 30. 68 3.73 2.32 1.411 61.1 34.8 26.3 53.7 31. 75 4.43 2.78 1.654 65.9 46.8 19.1 86.6 32. 88 3.76 2.78 0.977 77.5 51.0 26.5 36.9 33. 72 3.16 1.98 1.173 74.3 36.5 37.8 31.0 34. 67 3.28 2.01 1.275 87.5 46.0 41.5 30.7

[0080] TABLE 8 Comparison of studies in UK, Russia and Norway Country Control Patients ALICs in μg cholesterol per mg protein UK 13.4 ± 2.04 (n = 11) 84.9 ± 15.3 (n = 28) p < 0.001 Russia 19.3 ± 1.35 (n = 40) 61.6 ± 6.50 (n = 46) p < 0.001 Norway 12.9 ± 1.94 (n = 15) 67.6 ± 14.27 (n = 34) p < 0.001 Total 16.9 ± 0.99 (n = 66) 69.5 ± 6.76 (n = 108) p < 0.001 Elevated level of ALICs (≧28 μg cholesterol per mg protein) UK 18% (2 out of 11) 75.0% (21 out of 28) Russia 20% (8 out of 40) 72.5% (35 out of 46) Norway 13% (2 out of 15) 76.5% (26 out of 34)

EXAMPLE 7 Comparison of measurement of ALICs Using Different Sorbents

[0081] These are the results of the study of the comparison of the measuring of ALICs in human sera by using different sorbents. Three procedures were compared:

[0082] 1) Firstly, 200 μl of serum was treated with 300 μl of a suspension of protein A beaded agarose. The amount of the extracted lipoprotein-immunoglobulin complexes was estimated at this stage. Secondly, 100 μl of the remaining supernatant was treated with 100 μl of a suspension of protein L beaded agarose. The additional amount of lipoprotein-immunoglobulin complexes extracted by this sorbent was also measured.

[0083] 2) 100 μl of serum was treated with 300 μl of a suspension of protein G beaded agarose.

[0084] 3) 100 μl of serum was treated with 200 μl of a suspension of a complex of protein A and protein L attached to the beaded agarose.

[0085] Results

[0086] Whatever the procedure the level of ALICs attached to an immuno-sorbent was always higher in the patient group. The level of cholesterol attached to the immune sorbent was measured. See table 9 below.

[0087] An elevated level of ALICs both for the use of just protein A (more than 20 μg, cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins) and its combination with the sequential use of protein L (more than 60 μg cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins) was observed in all 17 patients, or in 100%. In the use of the complex sorbent A/L an elevated level of ALICs (more than 30 kg cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins) was observed in 15 patients out of 17, or in 88%. In the use of the protein G sorbent an elevated level of ALICs (more than 30 μg cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins) was observed in 11 patients out of 17, or in 65%. TABLE 9 The comparison of ALICs extraction (in μg cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins) by different sorbents from the sera of healthy people and patients with clinical complications of atherosclerosis; all measurements were performed in triplicate. ALICs Sequence of ALICs exraction by: ALICs extraction by protein L Total exraction extraction by complex Tested protein A sorbent used By this double by protein protein A/L Groups sorbent subsequently procedure G sorbent sorbent Control: M 20.5 ± 0.54 37.9 ± 0.93 58.4 28.2 ± 0.12 29.5 ± 0.23 M3 17.1 ± 0.12 33.7 ± 0.36 50.8 17.0 ± 0.65 21.6 ± 0.56 K 19.5 ± 0.04 33.9 ± 0.64 53.4 18.3 ± 0.32 29.0 ± 0.74 K2 17.3 ± 0.05 34.7 ± 0.16 52.0 23.2 ± 0.55 22.0 ± 0.22 K3 19.2 ± 0.27 39.5 ± 0.41 58.7 27.5 ± 0.90 25.3 ± 0.71 K4 14.7 ± 0.09 38.1 ± 0.86 52.8 21.0 ± 0.46 24.4 ± 0.45 K5 18.4 ± 1.01 31.3 ± 0.55 49.7 25.9 ± 0.73 21.0 ± 0.39 K6 18.1 ± 0.08 32.8 ± 0.20 50.9 26.1 ± 1.03 22.9 ± 0.30 K7 15.9 ± 0.54 39.3 ± 0.19 55.2 16.4 ± 0.44 28.9 ± 0.42 K8 19.7 ± 0.31 20.9 ± 0.83 40.6 27.8 ± 0.99 19.5 ± 0.28 Patients:  1 20.4 ± 0.68 51.0 ± 0.25 71.4 21.5 ± 0.36 32.6 ± 0.26  5 28.0 ± 0.72 57.5 ± 0.22 85.5 35.3 ± 0.95 38.1 ± 0.67  6 55.3 ± 1.31 42.0 ± 0.54 97.3 33.0 ± 3.39 41.7 ± 0.84 6a 38.5 ± 1.37 65.5 ± 0.16 104.0 21.2 ± 0.79 24.1 ± 0.52  7 20.8 ± 1.18 46.5 ± 0.40 67.3 20.1 ± 0.78 20.6 ± 0.22 11 40.0 ± 3.14 37.6 ± 0.58 77.6 33.1 ± 0.41 34.5 ± 0.74 12 52.8 ± 3.12 78.4 ± 0.24 131.2 55.9 ± 0.43 60.4 ± 0.33 13 37.3 ± 0.39 66.9 ± 1.32 104.2 39.2 ± 0.64 37.6 ± 0.47 14 23.5 ± 0.28 59.8 ± 0.96 83.3 21.5 ± 0.30 29.3 ± 0.23 15 23.3 ± 1.06 63.8 ± 0.30 87.1 11.5 ± 0.17 33.4 ± 0.40 16 27.5 ± 0.51 44.1 ± 1.41 71.6 28.7 ± 1.26 30.3 ± 0.33 17 26.3 ± 1.30 63.2 ± 1.62 89.5 28.9 ± 1.35 31.2 ± 0.33 18 40.7 ± 0.81 62.9 ± 2.73 103.6 34.4 ± 1.72 34.6 ± 0.18 19 34.0 ± 1.31 45.5 ± 0.36 79.5 36.8 ± 0.83 37.7 ± 0.33 20 24.6 ± 0.82 57.7 ± 0.81 82.3 21.9 ± 2.03 27.8 ± 0.19 21 35.8 ± 2.44 56.1 ± 1.14 91.9 41.3 ± 0.65 37.5 ± 0.73 22 23.2 ± 0.62 105.4 ± 1.06  128.6 35.0 ± 0.90 37.7 ± 0.44 Control 18.0 ± 0.60 34.2 ± 1.54 52.3 ± 1.44 23.1 ± 1.66 24.4 ± 1.26 (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) Patients 32.5 ± 1.37 60.7 ± 1.89 91.5 ± 4.44 30.5 ± 4.82 35.7 ± 2.47 (n = 17) (n = 17) (n = 17) (n = 17) (n = 17)

EXAMPLE 8 Outline Protocol for Measurement of ALIC's in a Sample

[0088] take 100 μl of serum (keep the rest) and add 150 μl of protein A suspension,

[0089] mix them and keep at 37° C. for 1 hour;

[0090] spin the sample at 3,000 g for 10 minutes;

[0091] collect and measure the volume of supernatant; it is usually slightly more than the initial 100 μl of the serum, for example, 130 μl, and the degree of the serum dilution would be in this case equal to 1.3;

[0092] measure the protein and total cholesterol by any available assay in the sample of the initial serum and in the supernatant; use for the former colorimetric, based on Coomassie blue, micro assay (Sigma lit 610-A), and for the latter colorimetric enzymatic assay (Sigma kit 352-20);

[0093] after this data measurements for the serum treated with the sorbent should be multiplied by the dilution coefficient, 1.3;

[0094] afterwards numbers obtained should be deducted from the same parameters of the untreated serum;

[0095] divide the extracted level of cholesterol by the extracted level of protein (immunoglobulins);

[0096] the final figures would present the level of ALICs, removed from the serum by immuno-sorbent, in μg cholesterol per mg of immunoglobulins. 

1. A method of assessing the risk of an individual of suffering from atherosclerosis wherein the method comprises: a) removing anti-lipoprotein immune complexes from a sample from the individual; b) measuring the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with said anti-lipoprotein immune complexes; and c) determining thereby the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual.
 2. Method according to claim 1 wherein step (a) comprises contacting the sample with an antibody sorbent bound to a solid support.
 3. A method according to claim 1 or 2 wherein step (a) comprises contacting the sample with an immunoglobulin binding domain of protein A bound to a solid support.
 4. A method according to claim 2 or 3 wherein step (a) comprises incubating the sample with the antibody sorbent bound to beads and subsequently separating the unbound fraction of the sample from the beads.
 5. A method according to claim 4 wherein the step of separating the sample from the beaded antibody sorbent comprises centrifuation or filtration the sample
 6. A method according to claim 4 wherein the beads comprise magnetic beads and the step of separating the sample from beaded antibody-sorbent comprises placing the sample in a magnetic field.
 7. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein step (b) comprises measuring the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein associated with said anti-lipoprotein immune complexes removed from the sample.
 8. A method according to any one of the preceding claims further comprising, prior to step (a), measuring the level of cholesterol lipoprotein in the sample.
 9. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein step (c) comprises determining the reduction in the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein in the sample following step (a) to determine thereby the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual.
 10. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the level of cholesterol/lipoprotein in the treated sample or the reduction in cholesterol/lipoprotein, is compared with the level or reduction seen in a healthy individual and/or an individual suffering from atherosclerosis or the clinical complications of atherosclerosis to determine thereby the risk of atherosclerosis in the individual under test.
 11. A diagnostic kit for use in assessing the risk of an individual suffering from atherosclerosis comprising: a) an antibody sorbent bound to a solid support and b) means for determining the levels of cholesterol/lipoprotein in a sample.
 12. A kit according to claim 11 wherein the antibody sorbent comprises an immunoglobulin binding domain of protein A bound to beads. 